Humans do not seem to be comfortable with someone who has...

Humans do not seem to be comfortable with someone who has a different opinion and different views from them. Throughout the history of the word discrimination has been seen everywhere. Barbara Jordan says that â€Å"we as humans must be willing to accept and tolerate people who are different from ourselves. â€Å" We must tolerate everyone because they have the right to express their opinion. Intolerance has happened all across the globe, it has happened in the past and it is still an ongoing problem many people face. Palestine is a historic and diverse land it is the home of both Jews and Palestinians. Their different ideals have resulted in a conflict that has been going on for hundreds of years. After the end of WWII the government of England†¦show more content†¦He says that â€Å"I’ve been to many veteran hospitals and seen too many broken bodies of guys who have tried to protect it.† The act of burning the flag is an insult to the soldiers who have mutilated themselves while trying to protect their country. In 1961 a group of people known as the freedom riders set out to the Deep South in order to defy the Jim Crow laws that made segregation legal and prohibited white and colored people from being together in the same restaurant. Train stations had white waiting areas and colored waiting areas. The freedom riders were calling for change; they were often imprisoned for disturbing the peace. The freedom riders movement was spreading across the country. The freedom riders were attacked many times but what occurred on May 14 is one of the most notorious times. â€Å"On May 14 an angry mob of Ku Klux Klansmen attacked a bus full of people As the crowd of about fifty surrounded the bus, an eighteen-year-old Klansman and ex-convict named Roger Couch stretched out on the pavement in front of the bus to block any attempt to leave, while the rest — carrying metal pipes, clubs, and chains — milled around menacingly, some screaming, Dirty Communists and Sieg heil! There was no sign of any police, even though Herman Glass, the manager of the Anniston Greyhound station, had warned local officials earlier in the day that a potentially violent mobShow MoreRelatedLetter Concerning Toleration Essay1055 Words   |  5 Pagesof Government, and Letter Concerning Toleration (AR). In his treatises he proclaimed that absolute monarchy was not the proper way to govern. These beliefs about a monarchy started in him at a very young age. His Letter Concerning Toleration claims that governments do not have the right to interfere with citizen’s creeds unless they are a threat to the greater good. Locke’s ideas became foundational for Europe and America. In his Letter Concerning Toleration Locke shows that the magistrate needsRead More Locke, Aristotle and Aquinas Essay2204 Words   |  9 Pageswere Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas.   Aquinas disagreed in three key respects:   Compulsion, toleration, and authority.   Aristotle, on the other hand, disagree d on a more fundamental issue:   the goal of politics itself.   This essay aims to elucidate Lockes arguments, and then explicate Aristotle and Aquinas would-be objections to Lockes A Letter Concerning Toleration.    In A Letter Concerning Toleration, Locke discusses the issue of civil tolerance.   His main premise is that society is constitutedRead MoreThe Fall Of The Byzantine Empire1651 Words   |  7 Pagesin the Council of Basel . As out of place as it might have been with its message of religious toleration, the document reveals that the objective had less to do with actual toleration of diversity, and more with religious toleration through assimilation and conversion to Christianity . Cusa ´s efforts in this document to find a solution to this problem is passive, it does not foster religious toleration based on mutual respect of the differences between peoples, but that all differences between religionsRead More The Multivisions of Multiculturalism Essay3327 Words   |  14 Pageswhy it is that such a modest aim is the most we can hope for at this time; and (iii) that provides an understanding of what we can do in a multicultural world in order to illuminate what we should do. This framework will reject both the idea of toleration as found in Berlin’s conception of human choice and will speak of as maximal multiculturalism, an orientation that is found in John Milton’s idea of truth as variegated and that sees multiculturalism as a great good. These views are plagued by atRead MoreExploratons and Colonization of North and South America Essay examples916 Words   |  4 Pagescolonization of the Americas, the negative effects ultimately outweighed the positives. Throughout the colonies, religious toleration was widely practiced. Many may argue that the colonies did not practice religious toleration because of the Puritans of Massachusetts Bay Colony that escaped Europe for the freedom to practice Puritanism and then proceeded to not practice religious toleration (smithsonianmag.com). However, the majority of the colonies were colonies of religious freedom.. An example would beRead MoreTolerance Towards Others1750 Words   |  7 Pagesemphasize the true meaning of tolerance, society should look at the events that took place in history. There has been no tolerance in races, religions, and other characteristics of human nature. In AD313 the Roman emperor Constantine the Great decreed toleration of Christianity. Twenty years later, Constantine the Great set the pattern of religious censorship that was to be followed for centuries by ordering the burning of all books by the Greek theologian Arius. After the emperor Theodosius made ChristianityRead MoreThe Successful Formation Of A New Colony1450 Words   |  6 Pagesthe natives extremely difficult. It is quite ironic that the Puritans we think of today fled England to establish their own ideal society rather than the myth that they fled to escape persecution and champion religious toleration, considering they were the exact opposite of toleration. Unlike the extremely conservative policies of the Puritans, Quakers had liberal policies that included religious tolerance, liberal voting franchise, and humane punishments that did not result in execution. The QuakersRead MoreSignificance of the Toleration Act Essays621 Words   |  3 PagesSignificance of the To leration Act Religious intolerance was normal practice throughout the Middle Ages, the Reformation bringing with it much persecution. Christian Anti-Semitism fuelled the religious insecurity prevalent in Europe but by the end of the sixteenth century Poland, the Dutch Republic and France had reached a state of ‘tolerance’, being in contrast to the religiousRead More`` Nathan The Wise `` And Francoise De Graffigny s Letters From A Peruvian Woman1506 Words   |  7 Pagesand banal religion. For many people Christianity and Islam superseded Judaism. This resulted in Jews being persecuted across Europe. In order to address the issue of religious toleration, Gotthold Lessing used emblematic representations of his characters in order to create the backdrop for his beliefs on why religious toleration was necessary. Nathan’s (adopted) daughter, Recha was raised as a Jew. She was brought up to be tolerant and accepting of all. However, Recha fell in love with a Templar. WasRead MoreThe Two Enantiomers (An Analysis of Thomas Hobbes and Sebastian Casteillo)814 Words   |  3 Pagesbeliefs about their country and how it should be run. After closer inspection, Casteillo and Hobbes are near complete opposites. One philosopher believes in a strong central government, while the other promoted self-rule. Topics that include religio us toleration and the fear of the title â€Å"heretic† included completely different perspectives among the two people. Despite their differences, they endured similar fates and continued to argue for their cause. Sebastian Casteillo was a huge advocate for freedom

Essay about Oedipus Rex and Fight Club - 965 Words

Oedipus Rex, a play written by Sophocles, and Fight Club, a movie directed by David Fincher, are two stories that relate to one another by sharing similar ideas and life lessons. One could argue that both contain essential qualities and characteristics of classical tragedy, but are they both ultimately tragic in the classical sense of the word? I believe that both Oedipus Rex and Fight Club do, in fact, exhibit the important qualities of classical tragedy but ultimately, I think that only one of the two stories is a true classical tragedy. The term ‘classical tragedy’ may often be confused with the modern view of tragedy. Today, we may think of a tragedy as a disastrous event such as a car accident or a natural disaster, often leading†¦show more content†¦Therefore, this ending is an example of a sorrowful and disastrous conclusion. Sorrow and disaster are also central in Fight Club, in which a depressed young man, named in the credits only as Narrator, doesnt l ike his work and gets no sense of reward from it. Instead, he attempts to drown his sorrows by putting together the perfect apartment. He cannot sleep and begins to feel alienated from the world at large; hes become so desperate to relate to others that hes taken to visiting support groups for patients with terminal diseases so that he will have people to talk to and cry with. One day on a business flight, he discovers Tyler Durden, a charming, free-spirited man who sells soap. Tyler couldnt care less about the materialistic world, and he believes that one can learn a great deal through pain, misfortune, and chaos. One night, after the narrator comes home he finds his apartment burnt to the ground and he ends up spending the rest of his night at a bar with Tyler. After leaving the bar, Tyler cheerfully challenges his new friend to a fight. Our Narrator finds that bare-knuckle brawling makes him feel more alive than he has in years, and soon the two become friends and roommates, meet ing informally to fight once a week. As more men join in, the fight club becomes an underground sensation, even though its a closely guardedShow MoreRelatedChinatown: Above The Film Noir Genre Essay1597 Words   |  7 Pagesvillain, one who seeks riches and fame at the cost of murder, he made Noah Cross. This is not the typical boss we see in the back room of the club surrounded with henchman armed to the teeth, cigar smoke, and stacks of poker chips. He has the appearance of kindness and seems trustworthy to the viewer in his first interaction with Jake Gittes at the Albacore Club, always smiling and seemingly honestly concerned for the safety of Katherine. The viewer sees later, however that the incestuous relationshipRead MoreThe Greek Heros Triumph Over Monsters1477 Words   |  6 Pagesserpent with nine heads†(Willis 147). Hercules and his nephew, Iolaus, go to Lerna to slay the Hydra. Hercules met the Hydra and began to fight and cut its heads, but two grew back in each’s place. Hercules continued to cut off its heads and now Iolaus burned each cut wound so heads couldn’t grow. The Hydra had one head left, so Hercules smashed it with his club, tore it off, and buried it under a rock (Moncrieff 37-38). Hercules’s actions while fighting against and defeating the Hydra show thatRead MoreGreek Mythology8088 Words   |  33 Pages  The  Aegean  Sea  in  which  he  drowned  is  presumably   named  after  Aegeus.   C5   Oedipus Oedipus  and  the  Sphinx   French  painter  Jean ­Auguste ­Dominique  Ingres  was  a  superb  draftsman  who  created  numerous  depictions  of   historical  and  mythological  figures.  Shown  here  is  his  Oedipus  and  the  Sphinx  (1808),  which  is  in  the  Louvre   museum  in  Paris,  France.   Scala/Art  Resource,  NY   No  hero  of  Greek  mythology  has  proved  more  fascinating  than  Oedipus.  He  destroyed  a  monster,  the   Sphinx,  by  answering  its  riddle.  YRead MoreDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 PagesDistinctions create social barriers between people for the express purpose of creating (or reinforcing) advantages and disadvantages. When someone discounts the opinion of a coworker, for example, on the grounds that the person is â€Å"a member of the old boys’ club,† â€Å"from marketing,† â€Å"a woman,† or â€Å"doesn’t have a college degree,† he or she is creating a distinction that is not only potentially hurtful on a personal basis but ineffective for the organization. The creation of such distinctions destroys trust among

The Career of Nursing - 1259 Words

According to Boykin â€Å"Caring is the foundation of nursing† (Boykin et al, 2011) and in order to be a nurse, it is essential that a nurse can demonstrate and practice professional communication skills. Professional communication skills not only allows the nurse to provide different methods and tactics to communicate with patients of different needs and ages, but it enables the nurse to understand and to give the best possible care and outcome for the patient. Provision of information and handover is another major point for nurses and relates to professional communication. Nurses need to be able to get a detailed diagnosis from the patient through communication, and therefore allows for the nurse to handover vital information to other doctors or nurses who take over to provide the correct and best possible treatments and care. The nursing profession requires a nurse to uphold professional communication, provision of information and handover in order to care for the patient w ith the right treatment, and to provide the best health outcome. It is the nurses’ responsibility to understand what it means to have professional communication skills. Not only does not being able to communicate affect the patient, but also it affects how the nurse is able to do his or her job to the best they can. Smith and Pressman say that the Institute of Medicine has released reports, which stress, â€Å"good communication is critical to ensuring safe and reliable nursing† (Smith Pressman, 2010). BadShow MoreRelatedNursing : A Career As A Career In Nursing705 Words   |  3 PagesFrom a very early age I have had a passion and drive to help people. I was first inspired to go in to a nursing career by my grandmother who would tell me stories about her experiences as a midwife. One that stood out to me was when she travelled through a snowstorm to deliver a baby, and it is this level of commitment, care and compassion that I aspire to have. I have also found inspi ration from my mum who is an ICU nurse and has always shared her experience and advice with me. This has been somethingRead MoreThe Career Of Nursing As A Career In Nursing1614 Words   |  7 Pages Nursing is a very complex career that at many times requires one to be a leader. Nurses can be leaders in formal roles and also on the unit during any given shift. Nursing is a career that truly tests the character and attributes of those who choose to enter this career. Leadership in nursing is vital in creating a successful environment for patients. According to Stichler (2006), â€Å"effective leadership is essential to transforming organizations into environments that are safe for both patientsRead MoreNursing As A Career In Nursing1092 Words   |  5 PagesAbstract My name is Dania Infante and I am a BSN student at Florida National University. I chose nursing as a career path because I am a people person. I enjoy working and interacting with people on a regular basis as well as taking care of them. I know there are several careers that specialize in patient care. However, I chose nursing because I feel a nurse is in direct contact with the patient at all times. Nurses look after their patients in every aspect, physically as well as emotionally. TheyRead MoreThe Career Of Nursing Career1825 Words   |  8 PagesNursing When people are sick or injured they need someone to take care of them and may need to see a doctor. But usually there are other professionals who will see them first and provide hands-on care before the doctor arrives. Many of these professionals are nurses. Within the healthcare sector focused on the care of individuals, families and communities, nurses may help patients attain, maintain, or recover optimal health and quality of life. When considering a nursing career, one needs to be awareRead MoreNursing As A Career1568 Words   |  7 PagesPrice, Hall, Angus and Peter (2013) â€Å"Nursing is described as a beautiful, rewarding and motivating career followed with an acknowledgement that nurses are underappreciated.† (p.7) Nursing is a profession that is organized and abides by a code of ethics where the individual is expected to honour these implementations. Nurses spend their career saving and promoting life and one of the most significant parts of being a nurse is to be a patient advocate. Nursing students tend to frequently enter theirRead MoreNursing As A Nursing Career1933 Words   |  8 PagesNursing is a very intriguing profession with an open door to many new opportunities. While in the field many exciting experiences may come at you. The medical field has always interested me, but I was never quite sure on what career would suit me best and was the right one to pursue. There are many nurses in my family: my mom, sister in law, my cousin’s wife Taylor and my aunt Julene. After hearing all of their exciting stories I decided that nursing is the perfect career. It provides a great placeRead MoreNursing As A Career?1442 Words   |  6 PagesNursing As a Career? This research paper will help guide you into a career that has its pros and cons. What kind of education is needed to enter the nursing field? What the advancements are in the field of nursing? What is the earning potential of nursing? What the outlook on nursing in the future is and the different nursing work environments and so much more. The purpose of this is to inform anyone interested in becoming a nurse what you can do with your degree and most important, if this careerRead MoreThe Nursing Career1082 Words   |  4 Pagesanalytical by defining a problem and use data to determine an effective solution. A PHN must be able to communicate effectively, and understand how the media delivers information. Of great importance is the role of cultural competency in public health nursing. Cultural competency is the ability to effectively consider the worldviews, healthcare practices and preferences of people from diverse, racial, ethnic, socioeconomic, and cultural backgrounds. The PHN must put an emphasis on prevention and focusesRead MoreCareers In Nursing By Betty Smith : The Career Of Nursing1121 Words   |  5 Pagesabout the career of nursing and I am going to explain how nursing is a diverse multidimensional profession. According to the article â€Å"Opportunities in Nursing† by Betty Smith â€Å"Nursing in general is concerned with the care of people’s psychological, social, and physiological well being†. There are various types of nurses such as registered nurses, nurse anesthetist, psychiatric nurses, nurse practitioners and many more. The article â€Å"Careers in nursing† by Linda Burnes illustrates â€Å"careers in nursingRead MoreCareer Re search : Nursing Career1105 Words   |  5 PagesNursing Career Research After researching many nursing careers there are three that are stick out. Although salary is a big deal today, one must be aware of the specifics of a job to make sure they enjoy the job. Three interesting nursing careers are nurse educator, traveling nurse and a pediatric nurse. When thinking of a nurse educator, the name is self-explanatory. As explained in (â€Å"15 Highest Paying Nursing Careers [Infographic]†, 2017) a nurse educator is someone who has experiences in nursing

The Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald - 913 Words

â€Å"Gatsby? What Gatsby?† Daisy’s infamous line, when all the pieces begin to line up for Gatsby’s demise. It is also the line that sets the theme for the entire novel. Who is Gatsby, where did he come from, and what does he want? These are the inquiries that boggle the readers throughout the novel. Gatsby was like a monster created by his own Frankenstein, Daisy and Nick Carraway, is the ominous narrator, god, the eyes that were always watching and making judgments upon others. During the Jazz Age in New York, it was a time of little frugality and great extravagance. â€Å"It was in such a profusion around you.†(p.3) and the prodigality was attained in each class through lust (Tome and Daisy), deceit (Gatsby and the world), and murder (Wilson and Myrtle) of Jay Gatsby. Gatsby hosted several large gaudy parties where it was like stepping into another world. He hosted these parties in hopes that Daisy would wander into one; although, she never did. The people who attended his parties were classified as â€Å"new money†Ã¢â‚¬â€celebrities, socialites, and etc. The kind of people that came into money recently, inferring that it was not generational wealth. Daisy was classified as â€Å"old money†Ã¢â‚¬â€those whose families always had wealth and their posterior are entitled to a life of carelessness. Gatsby’s parties incited rumors from people who thought they knew who he was; however, of all who poured in, no one knew who him or at least not the real him. This was evident from the stories ofShow MoreRelatedThe Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald1393 Words   |  6 PagesF. Scott Fitzgerald was the model of the American image in the nineteen twenties. He had wealth, fame, a beautiful wife, and an adorable daughter; all seemed perfect. Beneath the gilded faà §ade, however, was an author who struggled with domestic and physical difficulties that plagued his personal life and career throughout its short span. This author helped to launch the theme that is so prevalent in his work; the human instinct to yearn for more, into the forefront of American literature, where itRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1343 Words   |  6 PagesHonors English 10 Shugart 18 Decemeber 2014 The Great Gatsby F. Scott Fitzgerald s 1925 novel The Great Gatsby is a tragic love story, a mystery, and a social commentary on American life. The Great Gatsby is about the lives of four wealthy characters observed by the narrator, Nick Carroway. Throughout the novel a mysterious man named Jay Gatsby throws immaculate parties every Saturday night in hope to impress his lost lover, Daisy Buchanan. Gatsby lives in a mansion on West Egg across from DaisyRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1155 Words   |  5 PagesThe Great Gatsby The Jazz Age was an era where everything and anything seemed possible. It started with the beginning of a new age with America coming out of World War I as the most powerful nation in the world (Novel reflections on, 2007). As a result, the nation soon faced a culture-shock of material prosperity during the 1920’s. Also known as the â€Å"roaring twenties†, it was a time where life consisted of prodigality and extravagant parties. Writing based on his personal experiences, author F. ScottRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1166 Words   |  5 Pagesin the Haze F. Scott Fitzgerald lived in a time that was characterized by an unbelievable lack of substance. After the tragedy and horrors of WWI, people were focused on anything that they could that would distract from the emptiness that had swallowed them. Tangible greed tied with extreme materialism left many, by the end of this time period, disenchanted. The usage of the literary theories of both Biographical and Historical lenses provide a unique interpretation of the Great Gatsby centered aroundRead MoreThe Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald845 Words   |  3 PagesIn F. Scott Fitzgerald’s novel, The Great Gatsby, colors represent a variety of symbols that relate back to the American Dream. The dream of being pure, innocent and perfect is frequently associated with the reality of corruption, violence, and affairs. Gatsby’s desire for achieving the American Dream is sought for through corruption (Schneider). The American Dream in the 1920s was perceived as a desire of w ealth and social standings. Social class is represented through the East Egg, the WestRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald Essay970 Words   |  4 Pagesrespecting and valuing Fitzgerald work in the twenty-first century? Fitzgerald had a hard time to profiting from his writing, but he was not successful after his first novel. There are three major point of this essay are: the background history of Fitzgerald life, the comparisons between Fitzgerald and the Gatsby from his number one book in America The Great Gatsby, and the Fitzgerald got influences of behind the writing and being a writer. From childhood to adulthood, Fitzgerald faced many good andRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald2099 Words   |  9 Pagesauthor to mirror his life in his book. In his previous novels F. Scott Fitzgerald drew from his life experiences. He said that his next novel, The Great Gatsby, would be different. He said, â€Å"In my new novel I’m thrown directly on purely creative work† (F. Scott Fitzgerald). He did not realize or did not want it to appear that he was taking his own story and intertwining it within his new novel. In The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald, he imitates his lifestyle through the Buchanan family to demonstrateRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1607 Words   |  7 Pages The Great Gatsby is an American novel written in 1925 by F. Scott Fitzgerald. One of the themes of the book is the American Dream. The American Dream is an idea in which Americans believe through hard work they can achieve success and prosperity in the free world. In F. Scott Fitzgerald s novel, The Great Gatsby, the American Dream leads to popularity, extreme jealousy and false happiness. Jay Gatsby’s recent fortune and wealthiness helped him earn a high social position and become one of the mostRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1592 Words   |  7 PagesMcGowan English 11A, Period 4 9 January 2014 The Great Gatsby Individuals who approach life with an optimistic mindset generally have their goals established as their main priority. Driven by ambition, they are determined to fulfill their desires; without reluctance. These strong-minded individuals refuse to be influenced by negative reinforcements, and rely on hope in order to achieve their dreams. As a man of persistence, the wealthy Jay Gatsby continuously strives to reclaim the love of hisRead MoreThe Great Gatsby By F. Scott Fitzgerald1646 Words   |  7 PagesThe 1920s witnessed the death of the American Dream, a message immortalized in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. Initially, the American Dream represented the outcome of American ideals, that everyone has the freedom and opportunity to achieve their dreams provided they perform honest hard work. During the 1920s, the United States experienced massive economic prosperity making the American Dream seem alive and strong. However, in Fitzgerald’s eyes, the new Am erican culture build around that

An Examination of Two Sides of a Controversy Free Essays

One that might make your hair rise, scream with all your might or run very fast is the sight of a human skull and skeleton during a full moon in an old abandoned house. This is the usual scene in a horror movie. Indeed, people fear seeing human remains. We will write a custom essay sample on An Examination of Two Sides of a Controversy or any similar topic only for you Order Now But skeletal remains can also cause conflict between museum owners, scientists and tribal groups. Authorities are usually torn between legal wrangling of these groups each one claiming the remains’ ownership. Nations of the world are also locked in debates over cultural property rights and intellectual property rights. The dispute between two great nations over great artifacts also has some repercussion on the economy of these two countries. Almost all schools and universities in the world maintain a museum basically for their activities in arts and sciences. In here, actual samples or replicas of the past are stored and lessons are becoming interesting if students can readily see what they read in the books. The more interesting the contents of the museums, the more famous they become. This generates sense of pride for the institution and sometimes become a source of revenues too. This is the reason why museums are trying to acquire interesting objects and when they become part of the museum, the real owner of the object finds it difficult to claim it. This becomes the source of conflict between museum administrator and Native Americans in the case of ancient artifacts. Archaeologists too are hard bent on keeping them because they are prized possessions and scientists can discover various things from studying the object and contribute to the enhancement of science. One afternoon of a windy Sunday, more than ten years ago, while seeing hydroplane race, along the shores of the Columbia River, two students found human skull that was washed into the shore. An almost complete skeleton was also found in the place. Study conducted on the remains has yielded information that the skull is already 9,400 years old. A conflict ensued immediately among scientists, Native Americans including local authorities (Ainsworth 2000). In Honolulu, Hawaii, artifacts were borrowed from a museum but apparently, the group who borrowed failed to return the remains and refused to reveal the whereabouts of the Native Hawaiian artifacts. This led to the filing of contempt of court by the federal judge against four heads of a Hawaiian gang. The four are members of the group called Group Caring for the Ancestors of Hawaii. Members of the group claimed that the artifacts were removed from its original place by an archaeologist and illegally offered for sale to the Museum. Group members assert that they just return the artifacts to where they rightly belong (New York Times 2005). An archaeology student recovered bones, beads and pieces of shells in Dry Lake Cave at the southern tip of Owens Valley in 1950. She wrote her findings in her record notebook. More than 50 years later, while her artifacts together with her records are lying inside a stockroom in Hershey Hall, three elders of the tribal group Timbisha Shoshone of Death Valley carefully inspect artifacts trying to see objects with cultural value, which they feel are rightfully theirs. The land of their ancestors includes the Dry Lake Cave (Lee 2002). Pauline Estevez, a tribal leader, who had an invitation to visit UCLA from the Fowler Museum of Cultural History, remarked, â€Å"It is our obligation as Indian people to safeguard our land and its wealth, Some of the artifacts here are part of our treasures which we think should not be kept by the museum or its collector because the land is their rightful owner† (Lee 2002). That is the reason why Estevez took the opportunity to yield to the invitation of the Fowler Museum of Cultural History. As an elder of a tribal group, she feels that what belongs to her land should be returned because they are part of their culture. The artifacts can be their ancestors or the treasures they brought with them which witnessed the birth of their tribe. They take pride in those artifacts and should also be seen by the younger generations as part of their identity. The Kennewick man who was found in the shore of the Columbian river was supposed to be returned to the five American Indian Tribes who jointly filed a claim so that they can possess and rebury the remains that they believe are theirs. The claim was under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990. The natives might have the same motive as those inhabitants of Death Valley. What belongs to them should be returned so that the remains of their ancestors can reunite with their land and the community where they once belong. The natives feel that their ancestors will be more peaceful going back to where they belong rather than to remain in the cold museum (Ainsworth 2000). That could be the same motive that prompts leaders of the Hawaiian group not to return the artifacts that were borrowed from the Hawaiian museum. They asserted that since those artifacts were taken illegally from their original burial place, they should be returned there so that the souls of their ancestor will really lie in peace. Meanwhile, a group of angry archaeologists who are interested in the Kennewick man want to study the remains. The finding of a 9,400 year old artifact naturally will interest them. They protested the move that will give the natives the right to the ownership of the Kennewick man. That started the legal battle between the archaeologists and the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation (Ainsworth 2000). While the natives are fighting for the return of the remains so that it can once again be a part of the original community and peacefully lie there, the scientists are hoping that they can contribute significantly to the world of science if they can study the remains. They believe that they can learn from the past as a way of improving the future. Thomas spoke in a crowded Kroeber Hall and states that the significant issue about the Kennewick remains are neither about religion nor science. According to him the issue is with regards to politics and not philosophy, about leadership and power. The question of who calls the shot when it comes to ancient American history. Is it the federal, the science community or the American Indian? Thomas is a vocal advocate of cooperative partnership between the American Indians and the scientists. He maintained that in a case like the Kennewick man, it’s a long and bitter fight, which can reach the Supreme Court. He believes that this case can be settled away from the premises of the court (Ainsworth 2000). How to cite An Examination of Two Sides of a Controversy, Papers

Ozone Layer Solid Research Essay Example For Students

Ozone Layer Solid Research Essay Subject: TABLE OF CONTENTSHow to get this FAQCopyright StatementGeneral remarksCaveats, Disclaimers, and Contact InformationTABLE OF CONTENTS1. THE STRATOSPHERE1.1) What is the stratosphere?1.2) How is the composition of air described? 1.3) How does the composition of the atmosphere change with2. THE OZONE LAYER2.1) How is ozone created?2.2) How much ozone is in the layer, and what is a2.3) How is ozone distributed in the stratosphere?2.4) How does the ozone layer work?2.5) What sorts of natural variations does the ozone layer show?2.5.a) Regional and Seasonal Variation2.5.b) Year-to-year variations. 2.6) What are CFCs?2.7) How do CFCs destroy ozone?2.8) What is an Ozone Depletion Potential?2.9) What about HCFCs and HFCs? Do they destroy ozone?2.10) *IS* the ozone layer getting thinner?2.11) Is the middle-latitude ozone loss due to CFC emissions?2.12) If the ozone is lost, wont the UV light just penetrate 2.13) Do Space Shuttle launches damage the ozone layer?2.14) Will commercial supersonic aircraft damage the ozone layer?2.15) What is being done about ozone depletion?3. REFERENCES FOR PART IIntroductory ReadingBooks and Review ArticlesMore Specialized ReferencesInternet ResourcesSubject: 1. THE STRATOSPHERESubject: 1.1) What is the stratosphere?The stratosphere extends from about 15 km to 50 km. In thestratosphere temperature _increases_ with altitude, due to theabsorption of UV light by oxygen and ozone. This creates a globalinversion layer which impedes vertical motion into and within the stratosphere since warmer air lies above colder air, convectionis inhibited. The word s tratosphere is related to the wordstratification or layering. The stratosphere is often compared to the troposphere, which isthe atmosphere below about 15 km. The boundary called the tropopause between these regions is quite sharp, but itsprecise location varies between ~9 and ~18 km, depending upon latitude and season. The prefix tropo refers to change: the troposphere is the part of the atmosphere in which weather occurs. This results in rapid mixing of tropospheric air. Above the stratosphere lie the mesosphere, ranging from ~50 to~100 km, in which temperature decreases with altitude; the thermosphere, ~100-400 km, in which temperature increaseswith altitude again, and the exosphere, beyond ~400 km, whichfades into the background of interplanetary space. In the uppermesosphere and thermosphere electrons and ions are abundant, sothese regions are also referred to as the ionosphere. In technicalliterature the term lower atmosphere is synonymous with thetroposphere, middle atmosphere refers to the stratosphereand mesosphere, while upper atmo sphere is usually reserved for thethermosphere and exosphere. This usage is not universal, however,and one occasionally sees the term upper atmosphere used todescribe everything above the troposphere (for example, in NASAsUpper Atmosphere Research Satellite, UARS.)Subject: 1.2) How is the composition of air described? (Or, what is a mixing ratio?)The density of the air in the atmosphere depends upon altitude, andin a complicated way because the temperature also varies withaltitude. It is therefore awkward to report concentrations ofatmospheric species in units like g/cc or molecules/cc. Instead,it is convenient to report the mole fraction, the relativenumber of molecules of a given type in an air sample. Atmosphericscientists usually call a mole fraction a mixing ratio. Typicalunits for mixing ratios are parts-per-million, billion, ortrillion by volume, designated as ppmv, ppbv, and pptvrespectively. (The expression by volume reflects Avogadros Law for an ideal gas mixture, equal v olumes contain equal numbers of molecules and serves to distinguish mixing ratios from mass fractions which are given as parts-per-million by weight.) Thuswhen someone says the mixing ratio of hydrogen chloride at 3 kmis 0.1 ppbv, he means that 1 out of every 10 billion molecules inan air sample collected at that altitude will be an HCl molecule. Subject: 1.3) How does the composition of the atmosphere change withaltitude? (Or, how can CFCs get up to the stratosphere when they are heavier than air?) In the earths troposphere and stratosphere, most _stable_ chemicalspecies are well-mixed their mixing ratios are independent ofaltitude. If a species mixing ratio changes with altitude, somekind of physical or chemical transformation is taking place. That last statement may seem surprising one might expect the heavier molecules to dominate at lower altitudes. The mixing ratio of Krypton (mass 84), then, would decrease with altitude, while that of Helium (mass 4) would increase. In reality, however, molecules do not segregate by weight in the troposphere or stratosphere. The relative proportions of Helium, Nitrogen, and Krypton are unchanged up to about 100 km. Why is this? Vertical transport in the troposphere takes place byconvection and turbulent mixing. In the stratosphere and in themesosphere, it takes place by eddy diffusi on the gradual mechanical mixing of gas by motions on small scales. These mechanisms do not distinguish molecular masses. Only at much higher altitudes do mean free paths become so large that _molecular_ diffusion dominates and gravity is able to separate the different species, bringing hydrogen and helium atoms to the top. The lower and middle atmosphere are thussaid to be well mixed. Experimental measurements of the fluorocarbon CF4 demonstrate thishomogeneous mixing. CF4 has an extremely long lifetime in thestratosphere probably many thousands of years. The mixing ratioof CF4 in the stratosphere was found to be 0.056-0.060 ppbv from 10-50 km, with no overall trend. An important trace gas that is *not* well-mixed is water vapor. Thelower troposphere contains a great deal of water as much as 30,000ppmv in humid tropical latitudes. High in the troposphere, however,the water condenses and falls to the earth as rain or snow, so thatthe stratosphere is extremely dry, typical mixing ratios being about5 ppmv. Indeed, the transport of water vapor from troposphere to stratosphere is even less efficient than this would suggest, since much of the small amount of water in the stratosphere is actuallyproduced _in situ_ by the oxidation of stratospheric methane. Sometimes that part of the atmosphere in which the chemicalcomposition of stable species does not change with al titude iscalled the homosphere. The homosphere includes the troposphere,stratosphere, and mesosphere. The upper regions of the atmosphere the thermosphere and the exosphere are then referred to as the heterosphere. Subject: 2. THE OZONE LAYER Subject: 2.1) How is ozone created?Ozone is formed naturally in the upper stratosphere by shortwavelength ultraviolet radiation. Wavelengths less than ~240nanometers are absorbed by oxygen molecules (O2), which dissociate togive O atoms. The O atoms combine with other oxygen molecules to make ozone: O2 + hv -* O + O (wavelength * 240 nm)O + O2 -* O3Subject: 2.2) How much ozone is in the layer, and what is aDobson Unit ?A Dobson Unit (DU) is a convenient scale for measuring the totalamount of ozone occupying a column overhead. If the ozone layerover the US were compressed to 0 degrees Celsius and 1 atmospherepressure, it would be about 3 mm thick. So, 0.01 mm thickness at 0 C and 1 at is defined to be 1 DU; this makes the average thicknessof the ozone layer over the US come out to be about 300 DU. In absolute terms, 1 DU is about 2.7 x 10^16 molecules/cm^2. The unit is named after G.M.B. Dobson, who carried out pioneering studies of atmospheric ozone between ~1920-1960. Dobson designedthe standard instrument used to measure ozone from the ground. TheDobson spectrophotometer measures the intensity solar UV radiation atfour wavelengths, two of which are absorbed by ozone and two ofwhich are not . These instruments are still in usein many places, although they are gradually being replaced by the more elaborate Brewer spectrophotometers. Today ozone is measured in many ways, from aircraft, balloons, satellites, and space shuttle missions,but the worldwide Dobson network is the only source of long-term data. A station at Arosa in Switzerland has been measuring ozone since the1920s (see http://www The Salem Community by Miller Essay _Aside_: One sometimes hears that the US government killed the SSTproject in 1971 because of concerns raised by H. S. Johnstons work on NOx. This is not true. The US House of Representatives had alreadyvoted to cut off Federal funding for the SST when Johnston beganhis calculations. The House debate had centered around economics and the effects of noise, especially sonic booms, although there were some vague concerns about pollution and one physicist had testifiedabout the possible effects of water vapor on ozone. About 6 weeks after both houses had voted to cancel the SST, its supporters succeeded in reviving the project in the House. In the meantime, Johnston had sent a preliminary report to several professional colleagues and submitted a paper to _Science_. A preprint of Johnstons report leaked to a small California newspaper which published a highly sensationalized account. The story hit the press a few days before the Senate voted, 58-37, not to revive the SST. (The previous Senate vote had been 51-46 to cancel the project. The reason for the larger majority in the second vote was probably the statement by Boeings chairman that at least $500 million more would be needed to revive the program.).. Subject: 2.15) What is being done about ozone depletion?The 1987 Montreal Protocol (full text available on the world-wide web athttp://www.unep.org/unep/secretar/ozone/treaties.htm) specified thatCFC emissions should be reduced by 50% by the year 2000 (they had been _increasing_ by 3% per year.) This agreement was amended inLondon in 1990, to state that production of CFCs, CCl4, and halons should cease entirely by the year 2000. Restrictions were also appliedapplied to other Cl sources such as methylchloroform. (The details ofthe protocols are complicated, involving different schedules for differentcompounds, delays for developing nations, etc.) The phase-out schedulewas accelerated by four years by the 1992 Copenhagen agreements. A great deal of effort has been devoted to recovering and recycling CFCs that arecurrently being used in closed-cycle systems. For more information about legal and policy issues, see the books by and , and the following web sites:http://www.unep.org/unep/se cretar/ozone/home.htm http://www.unep.ch/ozone/ (European mirror site for above)http://www.epa.gov/docs/ozone/index.htmlhttp://www.ciesin.org/TG/OZ/ozpolic.htmlRecent NOAA measurements show that the _rate of increase_ of halocarbon concentrations in the atmosphere has decreased markedly since 1987. It appears that theProtocols are being observed. Under these conditions total stratospheric chlorine is predicted to peak at 3.8 ppbv in the year 1998, 0.2 ppbv above 1994 levels, and to slowly decline thereafter. Extrapolation of current trends suggests that the maximum ozone losses will be :Northern Mid-latitudes in winter/Spring: 12-13% below late 1960s levels, ~2.5% below current levels. Northern mid-latitudes in summer/fall: 6-7% below late 1960s levels,~1.5% below current levels. Southern mid-latitudes, year-round: ~ 11% below late 1960s levels,~2.5% below current levels. Very little depletion has been seen in the tropics and little isexpected there. After the year 2000, the ozone layer will slowly recover over a period of 50 years or so. The antarctic ozone hole is expected to last until about 2045. Some scientists are investigating ways to replenish stratosphericozone, either by removing CFCs from the troposphere or by tying upthe chlorine in inactive compounds. This is discussed in Part III. Subject: 3. REFERENCES FOR PART IA remark on references: they are neither representative norcomprehensive. There are _hundreds_ of people working on theseproblems. Where possible I have limited myself to articles thatare (1) available outside of University libraries (e.g. _Science_ or _Nature_ rather than archival journals such as _J. Geophys. Res._) and (2) directly related to the frequently asked questions. I have not listed papers whose importance is primarily historical. (I make an exception for the Nobel-Prize winning work of Crutzen,Molina and Rowland.) Readers who want to see who did what shouldconsult the review articles listed below, or, if they can get them,the WMO reports which are extensively documented. Subject: Introductory Reading R. R. Garcia, Causes of Ozone Depletion, _Physics World_April 1994 pp 49-55. T. E. Graedel and P. J. Crutzen, _Atmospheric Change: an Earth System Perspective_, Freeman, NY 1993. F.S. Rowland, Chlorofluorocarbons and the depletionof stratospheric ozone, _American Scientist_ _77_, 36, 1989. F. S. Rowland and M. J. Molina, Ozone depletion: 20 years after the alarm, _Chemical and Engineering News_, 15 Aug. 1994, pp. 8-13. P. S. Zurer, Ozone Depletions Recurring SurprisesChallenge Atmospheric Scientists, _Chemical and Engineering News_,24 May 1993, pp. 9-18. Subject: Books and Review Articles R. Bene*censored*, _Ozone Diplomacy_, Harvard, 1991. G. Brasseur and S. Solomon, _Aeronomy of the Middle Atmosphere_, 2nd. Edition, D. Reidel, 1986 J. W. Chamberlain and D. M. Hunten,_Theory of Planetary Atmospheres_, 2nd Edition, Academic Press, 1987 G. M. B. Dobson, _Exploring the Atmosphere_, 2nd Edition, Oxford, 1968. G. M. B. Dobson, Forty Years research on atmosphericozone at Oxford, _Applied Optics_, _7_, 387, 1968. Climate Impact Committee, National Research Council,_Environmental Impact of Stratospheric Flight_, National Academy of Sciences, 1975. H. S. Johnston, Atmospheric Ozone, _Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem._ _43_, 1, 1992. M. K. W. Ko, N.-D. Sze, and M. J. Prather, BetterProtection of the Ozone Layer, _Nature_ _367_, 505, 1994. K. T. Litvin, _Ozone Discourses_, Columbia 1994. M. McElroy and R. Salawich, Changing Composition of the Global Stratosphere, _Science_ _243, 763, 1989. F. S. Rowland and M. J. Molina,Chlorofluoromethanes in the Environment, Rev. Geophys. Space Phys. _13_, 1, 1975. F. S. Rowland, Stratospheric Ozone Depletion, _Ann. Rev. Phys. Chem._ _42_, 731, 1991. M. L. Salby and R. R. Garcia, Dynamical Perturbationsto the Ozone Layer, _Physics Today_ _43_, 38, March 1990. S. Solomon, Progress towards a quantitative understandingof Antarctic ozone depletion, _Nature_ _347_, 347, 1990. J. M. Wallace and P. V. Hobbs,_Atmospheric Science: an Introductory Survey_, Academic Press, 1977. R. P. Wayne, _Chemistry of Atmospheres_, 2nd. Ed., Oxford, 1991. World Meteorological Organization, _Report of the International Ozone Trends Panel_, Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project Report #18. World Meteorological Organization, _Scientific Assessment of Stratospheric Ozone: 1991_Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project Report #20. World Meteorological Organization, _Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1991_Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project Report #25. World Meteorological Organization, _Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994_Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project Report #37. The Executive Summary of this report is available on theWorld-Wide Web at http://www.al.noaa.gov/WWWHD/pubdocs/WMOUNEP94.htmlSubject: More Specialized References R. D. Bojkov, V. E. Fioletov, D. S. Balis,C. S. Zerefos, T. V. Kadygrova, and A. M. Shalamjansky, Further ozone decline during the northern hemisphere winter-springof 1994-95 and the new record low ozone over Siberia,Geophys. Res. Lett. _22_, 2729, 1995. G. Brasseur and C. Granier, Mt. Pinatuboaerosols, chlorofluorocarbons, and ozone depletion, _Science__257_, 1239, 1992. P. J. Crutzen, The influence of nitrogen oxides on theatmospheric ozone content, _Quart. J. R. Met. Soc._ _90_, 320, 1970. J. W. Elkins, T. M. Thompson, T. H. Swanson,J. H. Butler, B. D. Hall, S. O. Cummings, D. A. Fisher, and A. G. Raffo, Decrease in Growth Rates of Atmospheric Chlorofluorocarbons 11 and 12, _Nature_ _364_, 780, 1993. D. W. Fahey, E. R. Keim, K. A. Boering,C. A. Brock, J. C. Wilson, H. H. Jonsson, S. Anthony, T. F. Hanisco,P. O. Wennberg, R. C. Miake-Lye, R. J. Salawich, N. Louisnard, E. L. Woodbridge, R. S. Gao, S. G. Donnelly, R. C. Wamsley,L. A. Del Negro, S. Solomon, B. C. Daube, S. C. Wofsy, C. R. Webster,R. D. May, K. K. Kelly, M. Loewenstein, J. R. Podolske, and K. R. Chan,Emission Measurements of the Concorde Supersonic Aircraft in theLower Stratosphere, _Science_ _270_, 70, 1995. J. Gleason, P. Bhatia, J. Herman, R. McPeters, P. Newman, R. Stolarski, L. Flynn, G. Labow, D. Larko, C. Seftor, C. Wellemeyer, W. Komhyr, A. Miller, and W. Planet, Record Low GlobalOzone in 1992, _Science_ _260_, 523, 1993. K. Henriksen and V. Roldugin, Total ozonevariations in Middle Asia and dynamics meteorological processesin the atmosphere, _Geophys. Res. Lett._ _22_, 3219, 1995. K. Henriksen, T. Svenoe, and S. H. H. Larsen,On the stability of the ozone layer at Tromso, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys. _55_, 1113, 1992. J. R. Herman, R. McPeters, and D. Larko,Ozone depletion at northern and southern latitudes derivedfrom January 1979 to December 1991 TOMS data,J. Geophys. Res. _98_, 12783, 1993. D. J. Hofmann and S. Solomon, Ozone destruction through heterogeneous chemistry following the eruption of El Chichon, J. Geophys. Res. _94_, 5029, 1989. D. J. Hofmann, S. J. Oltmans, W. D. Komhyr, J. M. Harris, J. A. Lathrop, A. O. Langford, T. Deshler, B. J. Johnson, A. Torres, and W. A. Matthews,Ozone Loss in the lower stratosphere over the United States in1992-1993: Evidence for heterogeneous chemistry on the Pinatuboaerosol, Geophys. Res. Lett. _21_, 65, 1994. D. J. Hofmann, S. J. Oltmans, J. M. Harris,J. A. Lathrop, G. L. Koenig, W. D. Komhyr, R. D. Evans, D. M. Quincy,T. Deshler, and B. J. Johnson,Recovery of stratospheric ozone over the United States in the winterof 1993-94, Geophys. Res. Lett. _21_, 1779, 1994. D. J. Hofmann, S. J. Oltmans, G. L. Koenig,B. A. Bodhaine, J. M. Harris, J. A. Lathrop, R. C. Schnell, J. Barnes,J. Chin, D. Kuniyuki, S. Ryan, R. Uchida, A. Yoshinaga, P. J. Neale,D. R. Hayes, Jr., V. R. Goodrich, W. D. Komhyr, R. D. Evans, B. J. Johnson,D. M. Quincy, and M. Clark, Record low ozone at Mauna Loa Observatoryduring winter 1994-95: A consequence of chemical and dynamicalsynergism?, Geophys. Res. Lett. _23_, 1533, 1996. J. B. Kerr, D. I. Wardle, and P. W. Towsick,Record low ozone values over Canada in early 1993,Geophys. Res. Lett. _20_, 1979, 1993. M. A. K. Khalil and R. Rasmussen, The GlobalSources of Nitrous Oxide, _J. Geophys. Res._ _97_, 14651, 1992. S. H. H. Larsen and T. Henriksen, Persistent Arctic ozone layer, _Nature_ _343_, 134, 1990. M. P. McCormick, L. W. Thomason, and C. R. Trepte, Atmospheric effects of the Mt Pinatubo eruption,_Nature_ _373_, 399, 1995. R. D. McPeters, S. M. Hollandsworth, andC. J. Seftor, Long-term ozone trends derived from the 16-year combinedNimbus 7/Meteor 3 TOMS Version 7 record, Geophys. Res. Lett. _23_,3699, 1996. M. J. Molina and F. S. Rowland,Stratospheric sink for chlorofluoromethanes: chlorineatom-catalyzed destruction of ozone, _Nature_ _249_, 810, 1974. S. A. Montzka, J. H. Butler, R. C. Myers,T. M. Thompson, T. H. Swanson, A. D. Clarke, L. T. Lock, and J. W. Elkins, Decline in the Tropospheric Abundance of Halogenfrom Halocarbons: Implications for Stratospheric Ozone Depletion,_Science_ _272_, 1318, 1996. M. J. Prather, M.M. Garcia, A.R. Douglass, C.H. Jackman, M.K.W. Ko, and N.D. Sze, The Space Shuttles impact onthe stratosphere, J. Geophys. Res. _95_, 18583, 1990. M. J. Prather, P. Midgley, F. S. Rowland,and R. Stolarski, The ozone layer: the road not taken,_Nature_ _381_, 551, 1996. A. R. Ravishankara, A. A. Turnipseed,N. R. Jensen, S. Barone, M. Mills, C. J. Howard, and S. Solomon,Do Hydrofluorocarbons Destroy Stratospheric Ozone?,_Science_ _263_, 71, 1994. Special Section on the Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment II, _J. Geophys. Res._ _98_, 4835-4897, 1993. S. Solomon and D.L. Albritton,Time-dependent ozone depletion potentials for short- and long-termforecasts, _Nature_ _357_, 33, 1992. R. Stolarski, R. Bojkov, L. Bishop, C. Zerefos,J. Staehelin, and J. Zawodny, Measured Trends in StratosphericOzone, Science _256_, 342 (17 April 1992) J. Waters, L. Froidevaux, W. Read, G. Manney, L. Elson, D. Flower, R. Jarnot, and R. Harwood, Stratospheric ClO andozone from the Microwave Limb Sounder on the Upper AtmosphereResearch Satellite, _Nature_ _362_, 597, 1993. R. Zander, M. R. Gunson, C. B. Farmer, C. P. Rinsland, F. W. Irion, and E. Mahieu, The 1985 chlorine andfluorine inventories in the stratosphere based on ATMOSobservations at 30 degrees North latitude, J. Atmos. Chem. _15_,171, 1992. Subject: Internet ResourcesThis list is preliminary and by no means comprehensive; it includes a few sites that I have found particularly useful and which providegood starting points for further exploration. Probably the most extensive collection of online resources is that providedby the Consortium for International Earth Science Information Network:http://sedac.ciesin.org/ozone/It includes links to many other documents, including on-line versionsof some of the original research papers. At the present time portionsof the site are very much under construction. Lenticular Press publishes a multimedia CD-ROM (for Apple Macintosh)containing ozone data and images, as well as a hypertext document similarto this FAQ. For sample images and information about ordering the CD,see http://www.lenticular.com/ Note that these samples are copyrightedand may not be further distributed. The NOAA Aeronomy Lab: http://www.al.noaa.gov/ , has the text of the Executive Summary of the 1994 WMO ScientificAssessment, http://www.al.noaa.gov/WWWHD/pubdocs/WMOUNEP94.htmlThe United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP) Ozone Secretariat:Main page http://www.unep.org/unep/secretar/ozone/home.htm (Nairobi, Kenya). Mirror site http://www.unep.ch/ozone/ (Geneva, Switzerland). The US Environmental Protection Agency has an ozone page that includeslinks to both science and policy resources:http://www.epa.gov/docs/ozone/index.htmlSome of the more interesting scientific web pages include:The Centre for Antarctic Information and Research (ICAIR) in New Zealand:http://icair.iac.org.nz/ozone/index.html Environment Canada: http://www.doe.ca/ozone/index.htmThe TOMS home page: http://jwocky.gsfc.nasa.gov/The EASOE home page: http://www.atm.ch.cam.ac.uk/images/easoe/The UARS Project Definition page:http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/CAMPAIGN_DOCS/UARS_project.htmlThe HALOE home page: http://haloedata.larc.nasa.gov/home.htmlThe British Antarctic Survey:http://www.nbs.ac.uk/public/icd/jds/ozone/The ETH Zuerich Institute for Atmospheric Sciencehttp://www.umnw.ethz.ch/LAPETH/lapeth.htmlThe Institute for Meteorology at the Free University of Berlin:http://strat-www.met.fu-berlin.de/The Climate Prediction Centers TOVS Total Ozone Analysis page:http://nic.fb4.noaa.gov:80/products/st ratosphere/tovsto/The USDA UV-B Radiation Monitoring Program Climate Network,http://uvb.nrel.colostate.edu/UVB/uvb_climate_network.html Send corrections/additions to the FAQ Maintainer: Last Update September 28 2000 @ 04:24 AM Ozone Depletion FAQ Part IV: UV Radiation and its EffectsFrom: (Robert Parson)Newsgroups: sci.environment,sci.answers,news.answersSubject: Ozone Depletion FAQ Part IV: UV Radiation and its EffectsFollowup-To: posterDate: 24 Dec 1997 20:51:43 GMTOrganization: University of Colorado, BoulderExpires: Sun, 1 Jan 1998 00:00:00 GMTMessage-ID: **Reply-To: Summary: This is the fourth of four files dealing with stratosphericozone depletion. It describes the properties of solar UVradiation and some of its biological effects. Keywords: ozone layer depletion UVB UVA skin cancer phytoplanktonArchive-name: ozone-depletion/uvLast-modified: 16 Dec 1997Version: 5.9Subject: How to get this FAQThese files are posted to the newsgroups sci.environment, sci.answers,and news.answers. They are also archived at a variety of sites. Thesearchives work by automatically downloading the faqs from the newsgroupsand reformatting them in site-specific ways. They usually update tothe latest version within a few days of its being posted, although inthe past there have been some lapses; if the Last-Modified date inthe FAQ seems old, you may want to see if there is a more recent versionin a different archive. Many individuals have archived copies on their own servers, but theseare often seriously out of date and in general are not recommended. A. World-Wide Web(Limited) hypertext versions, with embedded links to some of the on-lineresources cited in the faqs, can be found at:http://www.faqs.org/faqs/ozone-depletion/ http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/hypertext/faq/usenet/ozone-depletion/top.htmlhttp://www.lib.ox.ac.uk/internet/news/faq/sci.environment.html http://www.cs.ruu.nl/wais/html/na-dir/ozone-depletion/.htmlPlaintext versions can be found at:ftp://rtfm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/ozone-depletion/ftp://ftp.uu.net/usenet/news.answers/ozone-depletion/-B. Anonymous ftpTo rtfm.mit.edu, in the directory /pub/usenet/news.answers/ozone-depletionTo ftp.uu.net, in the directory /usenet/news.answers/ozone-depletionLook for the four files named intro, stratcl, antarctic, and uv. -C. Regular emailSend the following messages to :send usenet/news.answers/ozone-depletion/introsend usenet/news.answers/ozone-depletion/stratclsend usenet/news.answers/ozone-depletion/antarcticsend usenet/news.answers/ozone-depletion/uvLeave the subject line blank. If you want to find out more about the mail server, send amessage to it containing the word help. Subject: Copyright Notice************************************************************************ Copyright 1997 Robert Parson ** ** This file may be distributed, copied, and archived. All such ** copies must include this notice and the paragraph below entitled ** Caveat. Reproduction and distribution for personal profit is ** not permitted. If this document is transmitted to other networks or ** stored on an electronic archive, I ask that you inform me. I also ** ask you to keep your archive up to date; in the case of world-wide ** web pages, this is most easily done by linking to the master at the ** ohio-state http URL instead of storing local copies. Finally, I ** request that you inform me before including any of this information ** in any publications of your own. Students should note that this ** is _not_ a peer-reviewed publication and may not be acceptable as ** a reference for school projects; it should instead be used as a ** pointer to the published literature. In particular, all scientific ** data, numerical estimates, etc. should be accompanied by a citation ** to the original published source, not to this document. ************************************************************************Subject: General RemarksThis file deals with the physical properties of ultravioletradiation and its biological consequences, emphasizing thepossible effects of stratospheric ozone depletion. It frequentlyrefers back to Part I, where the basic properties of the ozonelayer are described; the reader should look over that file first. The overall approach I take is conservative. I concentrate on whatis known and on most probable, rather than worst-case, scenarios. For example, I have relatively little to say about theeffects of UV radiation on plants this does not mean that theeffects are small, it means that they are as yet not wellquantified (and moreover, I am not well qualified to interpret theliterature.) Policy decisions must take into account not only themost probable scenario, but also a range of less probable ones. will probably do, but also the worst that he could possibly do. There have been surprises, mostly unpleasant, in this field in thepast, and there are sure to be more in the future. In general,_much_ less is known about biological effects of UV-B than aboutthe physics and chemistry of the ozone layer. Subject: Caveats, Disclaimers, and Contact Information| _Caveat_: I am not a specialist. In fact, I am not an atmospheric| scientist at all I am a physical chemist studying gas-phase| reactions who talks to atmospheric scientists. In this part